Complete Mitochondrial Genome Analysis Clarifies the Enigmatic Origin of Haplogroup D in Japanese Native Chickens.

Japanese native chickens (JNCs) comprise approximately 50 breeds, making Japan a diversity hotspot for native chicken breeds. JNCs were established through the repeated introduction of chickens from foreign countries. Jidori, which is the generic name of JNC breeds whose ancestral morphology resembles that of their wild progenitor (red junglefowls), is generally thought to have propagated from north East Asia (Korea and north China) to ancient Japan. However, mitochondrial haplogroup D, which is abundant in Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) as well as the Pacific but relatively rare in other regions, can be observed in some Jidori breeds (e.g., Tosa-Jidori, Tokuji-Jidori) with high frequency, leading to speculation that chickens from ISEA or the Pacific also contributed genetically to JNCs. To test this hypothesis, we sequenced the mitochondrial genomes of Jidori breeds and conducted phylogeographic analysis. Our results indicate that the JNC Haplogroup D belongs to Sub-haplogroup D2, which is currently only observed in Xinjiang, northwest China, and not to Sub-haplogroup D1, which is widely distributed in the ISEA-Pacific region. The other mitochondrial haplogroups of Jidori examined in this study also showed affinity to those of chickens native to north East Asia. Therefore, our findings support the north East Asian origin hypothesis for Jidori.

Comparative morphological study of skeletal muscle weight among the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) and various fowl breeds (Gallus domesticus).

We examined the weight distribution of skeletal muscles of the red jungle fowl, then compared these values with those of domesticated populations to determine how muscle distribution has changed by selecting breeding. Sonia, Fayoumi, and Rhode Island Red were selected for comparison from livestock breeds, while Japanese Shamo and Thai fighting cocks were selected from cockfighting groups. Principal component analysis was applied using body size-free data. The mass distribution of muscles clearly differed between the wild, livestock, and cockfighting groups, demonstrating that muscle distribution has changed after selecting breeding, coupled with functional demands of each group. The red jungle fowl, which has the ability to fly, could be clearly distinguished from the flightless domesticated populations due to differences in flight pectoral muscle size. The cervical muscles in the wild population were smaller than in the domesticated groups; these do not contribute to flight. The gluteal muscles were larger in the fighting cock group, functionally coupled to their traditionally preferred upright posture. Wild bird populations typically exhibit reduced weight of their hind limbs, associated with flight, but as the red jungle fowl displays largely terrestrial behavior, these muscles are similar in arrangement and relative size to those of the livestock groups. We showed that the mass distribution pattern of skeletal muscles expresses selecting breeding strategy and clearly reflects the specific traits for each group.

Synthesis and Antiplatelet Adhesion Behavior of a Poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide)-Poly(1,5-dioxepan-2-one) Multiblock Copolymer.

Platelet adhesion and denaturation on artificial medical implants induce thrombus formation. In this study, bioabsorbable copolymers composed of poly(l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and poly(1,5-dioxepan-2-one) (PDXO) were synthesized and evaluated for their antiplatelet adhesive properties. The PLGA-PXO multiblock copolymer (PLGA-PDXO MBC) and its random copolymer (PLGA-PDXO RC) showed effective antiplatelet adhesive properties, and the number of adhered platelets was similar to those adhered on poly(2-methoxyethylacrylate), a known antiplatelet adhesive polymer, although a large number of denatured platelets were observed on a PLGA-poly(ε-caprolactone) multiblock copolymer (PLGA-PCL MBC). Using monoclonal antifibrinogen IgG antibodies, we also found that both αC and γ-chains, the binding sites of fibrinogen for platelets, were less exposed on the PLGA-PDXO MBC surface compared to PLGA-PCL MBC. Furthermore, free-standing films of PLGA-PDXO MBC were prepared by casting the polymer solution on glass plates and showed good tensile properties and slow hydrolytic degradation in phosphate-buffered saline (pH = 7.4). We expect that the unique properties of PLGA-PDXO MBC, i.e., antiplatelet adhesive behavior, good tensile strength, and hydrolytic degradation, will pave the way for the development of new bioabsorbable implanting materials suitable for application at blood-contacting sites.

Three-dimensional CT observation of position and movability of the scapula in the horse using carcasses of Falabella.

The three-dimensionally real position and movement of the scapula in the lateral side of the ribcage could not be clarified in the horse, since the body size of the horse is too large to apply the CT scanning and image analysis methods. In this study, therefore, we examined the position and the movability of scapula using a carcass of the Falabella which is one of the smallest breeds of the horse. The whole skeletal system in thoracic part of the Falabella could be three-dimensionally observed by CT scanning method. The three-dimensional images show that the scapula cranially slides and the ventral part of the scapula dorso-cranially rotates, when the shoulder joint moves to the most cranial position as simulation. The three-dimensional rotation angle was approximately 10 degrees. As a result of comparative osteology of the scapula between Falabella and the large draft horse, the infraspinous fossa was caudally enlarged in the larger draft horse, whereas the Falabella had narrower infraspinous fossa. We suggest that it may be due to the adaptational morphological change in the scapula bearing various body weights among breeds. The three-dimensional CT image analysis and the simulation in carcass contribute to the analysis of the bone movements of the horse during walking and running locomotion as well as the motion analysis from external functional-morphological data.

Three-dimensional CT examination of the forefoot and hindfoot of the hippopotamus and tapir during a semiaquatic walking.

Semiaquatic walking has resulted in the evolution of functional and morphological changes in various hoofed mammals, such as hippopotamus and Brazilian tapir. The biomechanics of skilful walking in wetlands or at the bottom of a waterbody involve the medio-lateral opening and closing of the feet to effectively support and stabilize the body on soft ground and to reduce the water resistance during recovery stroke, respectively. We demonstrate that the opening and closing of the feet in hippopotamus and Brazilian tapir are mediated by the adduction and abduction of the most medial and lateral phalanges from the CT examination. The axial toes, metacarpals and metatarsals do not contribute to changes in the width and shape of the feet, unlike the medial and lateral toes. We suggest that this semiaquatic walking motion is derived from the original terrestrial mode of locomotion, in contrast to the highly functional swimming motion using webs or fins in morphologically modified feet and tail. From the present data we demonstrate that semiaquatic locomotion evolved due to the acquisition of adductor-abductor mobility in the phalanges of the most medial and lateral digits, as shown in hippopotamus and Brazilian tapir.

Morphological variation in brain through domestication of fowl.

Great variations in the size, shape, color, feather structure and behavior are observed among fowl breeds. Because many types of domestic fowls have been bred for various purposes, they are ideal to assess the relationship between brain morphology and avian biology. However, little is known about changes in brain shape that may have occurred during fowl domestication. We analyzed the brains of red jungle fowl and domestic fowl to clarify differences in the brain shape between these breeds, as well as the shape changes associated with size enlargement using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics. Principal component and multivariate regression analyses showed that ventrodorsal bending, anteroposterior elongation and width reduction were significantly correlated with brain size. According to the size-dependent analysis, the red jungle fowl brain has an intermediate shape between the brain of young broilers and that of large domestic fowl and adult broilers. After the size effect is removed, geometric morphometric analyses show that the brain of red jungle fowl is different from that of domestic fowl, with large round cerebral hemispheres. Significant correlations exist between the skull length and brain volume among fowl, while the brain volume relative to the skull length is distinctly larger in red jungle fowl compared with domestic fowl. The distinct brain shape and increased relative brain size of red jungle fowl may be driven by the presence of large, rounded cerebral hemispheres.

Comparative Functional Morphology of the Skeletal Forelimb, Pectoral Girdle, and Sternum in Japanese Native Domestic Fowls.

This study aims to understand the relationships among morphological characteristics, their functional roles, and breeder preferences in Japanese native fowls. We analyzed and compared the shapes and sizes of the skeletal forelimb, pectoral girdle, and sternum among six breeds: Chabo, Oh-Shamo, Onagadori, Shokoku, Tosajidori, and Totenko. Because skeletal forelimb, pectoral girdle, and sternum are one of the bases for composing body appearance and for movement of birds such as flapping, we treated those skeletons. All measurements of size were smaller in Chabo than those in other breeds except Tosajidori. The largest measurement values of all parameters were observed in Oh-Shamo. The largest measurement values were observed in all measurements of Oh-Shamo. Short and wide forelimb bones and a short coracoid were observed in Chabo. Oh-Shamo was equipped with a wide sternum and a widely articulated coracoid. Shokoku and Totenko possessed longer bones that constitute the thoracic cavity. We suggest that the small bone size in ornamental fowls contributes toward a cute appearance and that the large bone size of fighting fowls is correlated with their masculinity and aggressiveness. The short forelimb bones, wide articulation, and corpus of forelimb bones in Chabo create a round and soft body silhouette. The observed short coracoid prevents Chabo from dragging its body on the ground while walking. The wide sternum and articulation of the coracoid observed in Oh-Shamo are considered to contribute to the ability to pounce on an opponent by flapping during a fight. The wide sternum of Oh-Shamo is considered to affect its body outline, producing a strong, masculine physical appearance. We also suggest that the characteristics observed in Shokoku and Totenko create a space for the vocal organs, such as clavicle air sacs. We suggest that the observed morphological characteristics underlie the function and breeder preferences of each breed.

Musculoskeletal System of Huge Tarsometatarsal Region in the Dong Tao Fowls from North Vietnam.

A macroscopic examination of the huge leg of the Dong Tao breed from North Vietnam was conducted. Bone and muscular tendon morphometric data demonstrated that the Dong Tao breed was equipped with the extraordinarily thick and large tarsometatarsal bone and distal parts of the related tibiotarsus regions. Morphological differences between dorsal and plantar sides were clearly observed. First, on the dorsal side, fleshy bundles were extended effectively using the enlarged dorsal surface of tarsometatarsal bone shown as Musuculus extensor digitorum brevis, M. extensor digiti I brevis and M. adductor digiti IV. The strong and fleshy extensor bellies of M. tibialis cranialis and M. extensor digitorum longus were enlarged in the crural region, functioning to dorsally pull the heavy tarsometatarsal region through the ankle joint. Second, on the plantar side, the flexor tendon groups around the ankle joint were wider and thicker than those of other ordinary breeds, possibly to stabilize the tarsometatarsal bone and to flex the phalange as observed in M. flexor perforatus digiti II, M. flexor perforans et perforatus digiti II, M. flexor perforatus digiti III, M. flexor perforans et perforatus digiti III, M. flexor perforatus digiti IV, and M. flexor perforans digitorum profundus. The mass of the huge tarsometatarsal region does not contribute to effective locomotion in the Dong Tao fowl in comparison with that associated with normal breeds. However, we suggest that these morphological changes in the musculoskeletal system may functionally compensate for the physical disadvantages of the large weight of the distal part of the hindlimb in the Dong Tao fowl.

Preliminary study on the automated skull fracture detection in CT images using black-hat transform.

Linear skull fracture, following head trauma, may reach major blood vessels, such as the middle meningeal artery or sinus venosus, and may cause epidural hematoma. However, hematoma is likely to be missed in the initial interpretation because it spreads only gradually. In addition, the fracture lines that run along the scan slice plane are often missed during initial interpretation. In this study, we develop a novel method for automated detection of the linear skull fracture using head computed tomography (CT) images and conduct a basic evaluation using digital phantom and head phantom that enclose genuine human bones. In the proposed method, the bone region is first extracted using morphological processing of the head CT images. Then, the cranial vault is determined from the CT scout view image. The skull has low-density cancellous bone between the hard two-layer high-density compact bones. Because the fracture lines of compact bones are more clearly recognized as compared to cancellous bones, the bone surface is then extracted by performing three-dimensional (3D) Laplacian filtering. Finally, linear structures are extracted by applying the black-hat transform to the bone surface image. In the experiments, we evaluated the proposed method using digital phantom and CT images of the head phantom. From the experiments using digital phantom, we were able to detect a crack line with a width of 0.35 mm. In the experiments using head phantom, we were able to clearly detect the crack lines in the phantom. These results indicate that our proposed method will be useful for the automated detection of skull fracture in CT images.

Comparative Functional Morphology of Skulls among Japanese Breeds of Domestic Fowls.

The skull of six Japanese fowl breeds, namely, Chabo, Oh-Shamo, Onagadori, Shokoku, Tosajidori, and Totenko, were morphologically compared in this study. The morphological differences in the skull size and shape among the breeds were as follows. 1) Oh-Shamo possessed a wide bill, thick bill tip, small orbits and wide mandibular joint. The characteristics of the bill and mandible were interpreted as functional characteristics to endure the shock of pecking. We suggest that the small orbits and a wide frontal bone help in protection from pecking in games. 2) Chabo possessed a small skull. In terms of shape, this breed possessed relatively large orbits, a wide and high skull and a short bill. The wide and high skull and the short bill formed a circular-shaped face. We propose that these characteristics have led to its characterisation as ornament-type fowl. 3) Totenko, Shokoku, Onagadori and Oh-Shamo possess a long mandible. The long mandible led to an increase in the volume of the oral cavity. The wide resonance space is responsible for the low-frequency voice. The low-frequency crowing of Totenko, Shokoku, Oh-Shamo and Onagadori is a result of the enlarged resonance space created by the long mandible. The orbits of Totenko and Onagadori were larger than those of Shokoku and Oh-Shamo. We suggest that Shokoku possessed the small orbits as a fighting cock. Since Onagadori and Totenko had been bred as ornament-type fowl, they possessed larger orbits.